A Re-examination of the Legal and Jurisprudential Foundations of the Personal Criterion in Determining the Lighter Punishment

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Assistant Professor of Law Department of Hakim Sabzevari University

Abstract

According to the Islamic Penal Code, one of the judge's authorities—and in some cases, obligations—is to impose a lighter punishment (Akhaf). The application of the lighter punishment rule becomes controversial when the punishments are of different types, such as flogging versus imprisonment or imprisonment versus fines. Legal doctrine offers two criteria—personal or typological—to resolve this issue. Given the importance of the matter, this study, using library-documentary data collection and a descriptive-analytical approach with content analysis, seeks to answer the question: What are the jurisprudential and legal grounds for employing the personal criterion in identifying the lighter punishment? The findings indicate that the personal criterion, in addition to being closer to criminal justice and not contradicting public order, especially in cases where the crime is proven by confession or admission, has substantial textual and jurisprudential support. Therefore, using the personal criterion to determine a lighter punishment is both permissible and legitimate, and in some instances, due to the necessity of precaution, protection of Muslim lives, the principle of leniency, and the principle of avoiding harm to believers, its observance may even be considered obligatory.

Keywords

Main Subjects


‘Amili, Z. A. (1992). Masalik al-Afham ila Tanqih Sharayi‘ al-Islam (Vol. 14). Qom: Al-Ma‘arif al-Islamiyyah. [In Arabic]
Abi, F. (1996). Kashf al-rumuz fi sharh Mukhtasar al-Nafiʿ (Vol. 2, 3rd ed.). Qom: Islamic Publications Office. [In Arabic]
Abu al-Husayn, A. (1984). Muʿjam maqayis al-lughah (Vol. 2). Qom: Islamic Propagation Office of the Seminary of Qom. [In Arabic]
Ardabili, A. b. M. (1983). Majmaʿ al-fa’ida wa al-burhan fi sharh Irshad al-adhhan (Vol. 13). Qom: Islamic Publications Office. [In Arabic]
Bahjat, M. T. (2007). Istiftaʾat (Vol. 4). Qom: Daftar-e Marjaʿ. [In Arabic]
Elham, G., & Borhani, M. (2021). An Introduction to General Criminal Law: Crime and Criminal (6th ed.). Tehran: Nashr Mizan. [In Persian]
Fayyumi, A. b. M. M. (n.d.). Al-Misbah al-Munir fi Gharib al-Sharh al-Kabir lil-Rafi‘i (Vol. 2). Qom: Dar al-Rida Publications. [In Arabic]
Haeri, S. A. M. T. (1997). Riyad al-Masa'il (Vol. 16). Qom: Al al-Bayt Institute. [In Arabic]
Haji Dehabadi, M. A., & Ghaderinia, M. (2016). Foundations, consequences, and challenges of the offender’s right to determine their own fate in criminal proceedings. Islamic Law, 13(51), pp. 71–102. [In Persian]
Hashemi Shahroudi, S. M. (1999). Bayistahha-ye fiqh-i jaza. Tehran: Nashr Mizan – Dadgostar. [In Persian]
Hashemi Shahroudi, S. M. (2002). Qira’at fiqhiyyah mu‘asirah (Vol. 1). Qom: Da’irat al-Ma‘arif Fiqh Islami. [In Arabic]
Hilli, H. Y. A. (1992). Mukhtalaf al-Shi‘a fi Ahkam al-Shari‘a (Vol. 9, 2nd ed.). Qom: Islamic Publications Office. [In Arabic]
Homaei Cheraghi, P., Habibi Tabar, H., & Qayyumzadeh, M. (2019). An Investigation into the Inherent Dignity of Human Beings in Punishments Involving Deprivation of Social Rights. Ta‘ali-ye Huquq, 5(3), pp. 22–60. [In Persian]
Hurr ‘Amili, M. b. H. (1989). Wasa’il al-Shi‘a (Vol. 12). Qom: Al al-Bayt Institute. [In Arabic]
Isfahani, F. Hindi M. b. H. (1995). Kashf al-litham wa al-ibham ʿan qawaʿid al-ahkam (Vol. 10). Qom: Islamic Publications Office. [In Arabic]
Isfahani, H. (1991). Mufradat alfaz al-Qur’an. Lebanon, Syria: Dar al-ʿIlm, al-Dar al-Shamiyya. [In Arabic]
Jafari, M. T. (1998). Rasa’il fiqhī (1st ed.). Tehran: Keramat Publications. [In Persian]
Jalali, A., & Maldar, M. H. (2022). Ensuring human dignity of offenders in sentencing in light of the European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence. Public Law Research, 24(76), pp. 247–275. [In Persian]
Javadi Amoli, A. (2018). Soroush-e Hedayat (Vol. 7). Qom: Esra Publications. [In Persian]
Johari, I.  (1989). Al-Sihah – Taj al-lughah wa sihah al-‘Arabiyyah. Beirut: Dar al-ʿIlm lil-Malayin. [In Arabic]
Khwansari, S. A. Y. (1985). Jami‘ al-Madarek fi Sharh Mukhtasar al-Nafi‘ (Vol. 7, 2nd ed.). Qom: Isma‘iliyan Institute. [In Arabic]
Kulayni, M. b. Y. (1987). Al-Kafi (Vol. 7, 4th ed.). Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah. [In Arabic]
Lankarani, M. F. M. (2001). Tafsil al-shari‘a fi sharh Tahrir al-wasilah – Hudud. Qom: Jurisprudential Center for Pure Imams. [In Arabic]
Lankarani, M. F. M. (n.d.). Jami‘ al-masa’il (Vol. 1, 11th ed.). Qom: Amir Qalam. [In Persian]
Makarem Shirazi, N. (2003). Kitab al-nikah (Vol. 2). Qom: Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib School. [In Arabic]
Makarem Shirazi, N. (2006). Istifta’at jadid (Vol. 3, 2nd ed.). Qom: Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib School. [In Arabic]
Mazandarani, A. A. S. (2007). Dalil-i Tahrir al-wasilah – Vilayat-i faqih (2nd ed.). Tehran: Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works. [In Persian]
Mesbah Yazdi, M. T. (2017). Theory of Legal Islam  (Vol. 1, 6th ed.). Qom: Imam Khomeini Educational and Research Institute. [In Persian]
Mir Mohammad Sadeghi, H. (2021). General Criminal Law 1 (2nd ed.). Tehran: Dadgostar Publications. [In Persian]
Mohammadian, A. (2020). Article 167 of the Constitution and the Feasibility of Issuing a Ruling Based on the Lighter Fatwa. Criminal Law Research Journal, 11(2), pp. 221–241. [In Persian]
Montazeri Najafabadi, H. A. (1989). Dirasat fi vilayat al-faqih wa fiqh al-dawlah al-Islamiyyah (Vol. 2). Qom: Nashr Tafakkur. [In Arabic]
Montazeri Najafabadi, H. A. (1989). Mabani-ye fiqhi-ye hukumat-e Islami (Vol. 3, I. Salavati & A. Shakuri, Trans.). Qom: Mu’assisah Keyhan. [In Persian]
Montazeri Najafabadi, H. A. (2008). Hukumah dini wa huquq-i insan. Qom: Arghavan-e Danesh. [In Persian]
Montazeri Najafabadi, H. A. (n.d.). Risalah istifta’at. Qom. [In Persian]
Monti-Nejad, S. (2007). Standards for Measuring Negligence: Personal or Objective Criterion? Medical Law Journal, 1(2), pp. 107–124. [In Persian]
Muhaqqiq Hilli, N. J. b. Hasan. (1987). Sharayi‘ al-Islam fi masa’il al-halal wa al-haram (Vol. 4, 2nd ed.). Qom: Mu’assisah Isma‘iliyan. [In Arabic]
Musawi Bojnourdi, S. M. b. Hasan. (1981). Qawa‘id fiqhiyyah (Vol. 1, 3rd ed.). Tehran: ‘Uruj Institute. [In Arabic]
Musawi Golpayegani, S. M. R. (1991). Al-Durr al-manzud fi ahkam al-hudud (Vols. 1–2). Qom: Dar al-Qur’an al-Karim. [In Arabic]
Musawi Khoei, S. A. Q. (n.d.). Al-makasib – Misbah al-fiqahah. n.p. [In Arabic]
Musawi Khui, S. A. Q. (2001). Mabani takmilat al-minhaj (Vol. 42). Qom: Mu’assasat Ihya’ Athar al-Imam al-Khoei. [In Arabic]
Na’ini, M. M. H. G. (2003). Tanbih al-ummah wa tanzih al-millah. Qom: Islamic Propagation Office of Qom. [In Arabic]
Najafi, M. H. (1984). Jawahir al-kalam fi sharh Sharayi‘ al-Islam (Vols. 42–43, 7th ed.). Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi. [In Arabic]
Qummi, M. M. (2001). The Foundations of Tahrir al-Wasilah – Book of Hudud. Tehran: Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works. [In Persian]
Sadr, S. M. (2000). Beyond Jurisprudence. Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’. [In Arabic]
Safi Golpayegani, L. (1996). Jami‘ al-Ahkam (Vol. 2, 4th ed.). Qom: Hazrat Ma‘sumeh Publications. [In Arabic]
Safi Golpayegani, L. (n.d.). Al-Ta‘zir: Its Rulings and Limits. [In Arabic]
Sahib ibn ‘Abbad, I. B. A. (1993). Al-Muhit fi al-Lughah (Vol. 1). Beirut: ‘Alam al-Kitab. [In Arabic]
Sarikhani, A., & Mirzaei Moghaddam, M. (2015). Gradual retribution in crimes short of killing. Biannual Journal of Criminal Law Teachings, 12(9), pp. 3–28. [In Persian]
Shams Nateri, M. E., Kalantari, H. R., Zare’, E., & Riyazat, Z. (2014). Commentary on the Penal Code (2nd ed.). Tehran: Mizan. [In Persian]
Shubairi Zanjani, S. M. (1998). Kitab al-Nikah (Vol. 4). Qom: Raay Pardaz Research Institute. [In Arabic]
Shushtari, S. M. H. M. (2006). New Perspectives in Law (Vol. 1, 2nd ed.). Tehran: Mizan. [In Persian]
Tusi, M. b. H. (1987). Tahdhib al-Ahkam (Vol. 10, 4th ed.). Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah. [In Arabic]
Vahdat, M., Esfandiar, I., & Gholami, H. (2021). Examining the Lesser or Greater Severity of Flogging and Monetary Fines in the Crime of Insult in Light of the Law on Reducing Discretionary Imprisonment Sentences. Ray (Judicial Opinion Studies), 10(35), pp. 41–65. https://doi.org/10.22106/jcr.2021.528613. 1338 [In Persian]
Yazdi, S. M. (1985). Qawa‘id fiqh (Vol. 4, 12th ed.). Tehran: The Center for Publications of Islamic Sciences. [In Arabic]
Zanjani, A. A. (2000). Political Jurisprudence (Vol. 1, 4th ed.). Tehran: Amir Kabir. [In Persian]
Zubaidi Hanafi, S. M. M. (1993). Taj al-‘Arus min Jawahir al-Qamus (Vol. 7). Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. [In Arabic]